We repeated these studies with a single dose of the vaccine and challenged with the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron VOC (BA.1.1.529). Even a single dose of the vaccine significantly reduced transmission to naïve animals (Fig. 6). These results demonstrated that even a single dose of NanoSTING-SN is effective at mitigating the transmission of the Omicron VOC, and two doses of the vaccine were sufficient to eliminate transmission, which has implications for controlling the outbreak of respiratory pathogens.
Fig. 6: Single dose intranasal administration of NanoSTING-SN limits transmission and viral replication of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron (B.1.1.529) VOC in hamsters.
figure 6
A Experimental setup: We immunized hamsters with a single dose of the intranasal NanoSTING-SN (n = 10/group) vaccine or PBS (n = 8/group) 3 weeks prior to infection with ∼3 × 104 CCID50 of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron VOC (B.1.1.529). One day after the viral challenge, we co-housed the index hamsters in pairs with contact hamsters for 4 days in clean cages. We euthanized the contact and index hamsters on day 4 of cohousing. Viral titers in the nasal tissue of the index and contact hamsters were used as primary endpoints. B, C Infectious viral particles in the nasal tissue of contact and index hamsters at day 5 after viral administration post-infection were measured by end point titration assay. The dotted line indicates LOD. Individual data points represent independent biological replicates taken from separate animals; vertical bars show mean values with error bars representing SEM. Each dot represents an individual hamster. The analysis was performed using two-tailed Mann-Whitney U-test: ****p < 0.0001; ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05; ns not significant. Asterisks indicate significance compared to the PBS-treated animals at each time point. Data presented as combined results from one independent experiment. Gender was tested as a variable with an equal number of male and female hamsters included in study. A and parts of (B, C): Created with BioRender.com released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International license (
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/deed.en). Abbreviations: d2 Day 2, d5 Day 5, IN Intranasal. Number of animals used: n = 8–10/group. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.
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NanoSTING-SN yields cross-reactive humoral immunity and confers protection against SARS-CoV
We next wanted to assess whether immunization with NanoSTING-SN would yield humoral responses that are cross-reactive against coronaviruses. Although the trimeric spike proteins from SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and MERS-CoV are structurally similar (Fig. 7A), sequence alignment of the RBDs of these same proteins showed significant sequence divergence (Fig. 7B). We evaluated the efficacy of NanoSTING-SN in mice by assaying the immune sera against both full-length S and N proteins and the RBDs from SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV (betacoronavirus) and HCOV-229E (alphacoronavirus) [Supplementary Fig. 13], with the RBD reactivity serving as a surrogate for neutralization. We documented robust antigen-specific, cross-reactive IgG responses against full-length S proteins and, as anticipated by the sequence divergence, a reduction in the reactivity to the RBDs of these different coronaviruses (Fig. 7C, D). By contrast, serum IgG ELISA against N proteins revealed similar titers against SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV N proteins (Fig. 7C).
Fig. 7: Immunization of mice with NanoSTING-SN vaccine yields cross-reactive humoral immunity against betacoronaviruses and confers protection against SARS-CoV.
figure 7
A 3D structure of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV spike proteins showing binding to respective receptors (PDB: 6ZP7, 5X5B, 5X5C). B Multiple sequence alignment of RBDs of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV spike (S) proteins. GenBank accession numbers are QHR63250.1 (SARS-CoV-2 S), AY278488.2 (SARS-CoV S), and AFS88936.1 (MERS-CoV S). C, D Humoral immune responses in the serum were evaluated using N and S protein-based IgG ELISA. E Experimental set up for SARS-CoV challenge studies in mice. We immunized mice (n = 10/group) intranasally with one dose of NanoSTING-SN on day 0 and a second dose on day 21 and challenged the mice intranasally with the SARS-CoV (v2163 strain) on day 35. Post-challenge, we monitored the animals for 14 days for changes in body weight and survival. F Percent body weight change of mice compared to the baseline at the indicated time intervals. G Percent survival of mice compared to the baseline at the indicated time intervals. Individual data points represent independent biological replicates taken from separate animals; vertical bars show mean values with error bars representing SEM. Each dot represents an individual mouse. For (C, D), the analysis was performed using two-tailed Mann-Whitney U-test: ****p < 0.0001; ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05; ns not significant. For (F), the data was compared via mixed-effects model for repeated measures analysis. Lines depict group mean body weight change from day 0; error bars represent SEM. For (F), the exact p values comparing the NanoSTING-SN group to the Placebo group are Day 3: p = 2.7e-7, Day 4: p = 1.9e-10, Day 5: p = 7.1e-12, Day 6: p < 1.0e-15, Day 7: p = 2.9e-13, Day 8: p = 1.2e-8, Day 9: p = 3.8e-4, Day 10: p = 8.0e-3, Day 11: p = 9.3e-3, Day 12: p = 2.2e-2, Day 13: p = 3.3e-2, Day 14: p = 7.4e-3. Asterisks indicate significance compared to the PBS-treated animals at each time point. For (G), we compared survival percentages between NanoSTING-SN and PBS-treated animals using the Log-Rank Test (Mantel-Cox). Data presented as combined results from two independent experiments [C, D: Immunogenicity study with NanoSTING-SN, E–G: Challenge study with SARS-COV], each involving one independent animal experiment. Gender was not tested as a variable, and only female mice were used for the study (C, D). Gender was tested as a variable with an equal number of male and female mice included in the study (E–G). See also Supplementary Figs. 13, 14. E Created with BioRender.com released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International license (
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/deed.en). Abbreviations: ACE2 angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, D35 Day 35, IN Intranasal. Number of animals used: C, D: n = 4–5/group, E–G: n = 10/group Source data are provided as a Source Data file.
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To test if the cross-reactive humoral activity against the S-RBD translated to protection against viral challenge, we tested the efficacy of dual dose intranasal NanoSTING-SN in mice against SARS-CoV (v2163 strain) [Fig. 7E]. Upon challenge with SARS-CoV, mice in the sham-vaccinated group showed a mean peak weight loss of 27 ± 1%. By contrast, animals vaccinated with NanoSTING-SN showed completely normal weights that were no different from unchallenged animals at all indicated time points (Fig. 7F). Survival data confirmed that NanoSTING-SN vaccinated mice showed 100% survival, illustrating a significant impact of treatment on survival of mice compared to the PBS group (Fig. 7G). These results demonstrated that NanoSTING-SN can provide complete protection against challenge from multiple sarbecoviruses.
Since our data with SARS-CoV-2 (Figs. 1J, 3I) illustrated that immune response against the spike protein elicited by NanoSTING-S was sufficient to protect the animals from weight loss, we investigated if the dominant protection afforded by NanoSTING-S would also translate to SARS-CoV. As expected, animals immunized with two doses of NanoSTING-S and NanoSTING-SN (Supplementary Fig. 14A) showed completely normal weights and 100% survival as compared to PBS-treated animals (Supplementary Fig. 14B, C).
NanoSTING-SN confers durable humoral immunity in rhesus macaques
To assess the efficacy of NanoSTING-SN on Rhesus macaques (M. mulatta), we immunized three animals intranasally with two doses of NanoSTING-SN on Day 0 and Day 28 (booster dose). We monitored the animals for 44 days to track changes in body weight, attitude, appetite, and body temperature (Fig. 8A). None of the animals showed clinical signs such as loss of body weight (Fig. 8B) or increase in body temperature (Fig. 8C) upon administration of NanoSTING-SN. We evaluated humoral immunity induced in rhesus macaques using SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleoprotein-specific IgG ELISA. We evaluated the efficacy of the dual dose of NanoSTING-SN by assaying the immune sera collected at day 21 and day 45 against both full-length S and N proteins and RBD from SARS-CoV-2 variants (BA.1, XBB1.5), SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV. Consistent with our mice data, we documented robust antigen-specific, cross-reactive IgG responses against full-length S & N proteins from SARS-CoV-2 variants and from other coronaviruses at day 21 and post booster, the IgG titers were significantly increased at day 45 (Fig. 8D, E). Importantly, the IgG responses against both the S and N proteins did not reduce significantly over 6 months in the immunized NHPs (Non-human primates) (Supplementary Fig. 15).
Fig. 8: NanoSTING-SN confers durable humoral immunity in rhesus macaques.
figure 8
A Experimental setup: We administered two doses of the intranasal NanoSTING-SN vaccine (n = 3/group) 28 days apart to rhesus macaques. We collected the sera on days 0, 7, 14, 28, and 44 to evaluate humoral immune responses. We monitored the body weights of the animals every week after the immunization until the end of the study. Body weight change, body temperature change, and ELISA (IgG & IgA) were used as primary endpoints. Pre-immunization sera was used as control. B Percent body weights change for the non-human primates. C Body temperature changes for the non-human primates. D, E Humoral immune responses in the serum were evaluated using N and S protein-based IgG ELISA. F, G Humoral immune responses in the serum were evaluated using N and S protein-based IgA ELISA. H Humoral immune responses in the nasal washes were evaluated using N and S protein-based IgA ELISA. Individual data points represent independent biological replicates taken from separate animals; vertical bars show mean values with error bar representing SEM. Each dot represents an individual animal. For (D–H), the analysis was performed using two-tailed Mann-Whitney U-test: ****p < 0.0001; ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05; ns not significant. Data presented as combined results from one independent experiment. Two male and one female NHPs were used for the study. See also Supplementary Fig. 15. A Created with BioRender.com released under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International license (
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/deed.en). Abbreviations: IN Intranasal. Number of animals used: n = 3/group Source data are provided as a Source Data file.
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To test mucosal immunity, we evaluated IgA responses after both the prime and the boost immunizations. We detected elevated cross-reactive serum IgA responses against full-length N, RBD, and all spike protein variants tested from SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS (Fig. 8F, G). In humans, although serum IgG levels were associated with the prevention of disease against SARS-CoV-2 variants, newer data suggest that IgA antibodies in the nasal compartment correlate strongly with protection against infection, especially against the Omicron VOCs, and may serve as a surrogate for protection53,54. Accordingly, we evaluated the nasal wash IgA titers elicited upon immunization of the NHPs with NanoSTING-SN. We measured detectable and significant IgA responses against the S and N proteins of SARS-CoV-2 and the S protein of MERS-CoV (Fig. 8H). These results illustrate that NanoSTING-SN elicits cross-reactive mucosal responses in the nasal compartment of rhesus macaques.
Discussion
The continued evolution of SARS-CoV-2 and the potential for recombination between SARS-CoV-2 and closely related coronaviruses in bats has prompted an urgency in the development of vaccines targeting sarbecoviruses and coronaviruses55,56. Our study makes an essential contribution to the next-generation of pan-sarbecovirus and coronavirus vaccines. In this context, we report four significant results with NanoSTING-SN: (1) it yields both mucosal and systemic immunity against SARS-CoV-2 in hamsters against Delta VOC challenge, (2) it was sufficient to completely block transmission of the highly transmissible Omicron VOC (BA.5) to vaccine-naïve hamsters, (3) it confers complete protection against SARS-CoV in mice, and (4) it elicits cross-reactivity Ig responses in both the serum and nasal compartment of NHPs.
Several next-generation SARS-CoV-2 and pan-sarbecovirus vaccines have been developed and these can be classified into three categories: (1) intranasal vaccines, (2) pan-sarbecovirus vaccines, and (3) dual-antigen vaccines, recognizing that the categories can be overlapping. Intranasal (and oral) vaccines for SARS-CoV-2 have been developed and translated to humans57,58. The vaccine based on a viral vector expressing the Wuhan S protein (ChAd-SARS-CoV-2-S) showed results similar to NanoSTING-S, demonstrating reduction but also variability in viral loads in the upper airways of K18-hACE2 mice challenged with chimeric viruses with spike genes corresponding to SARS-CoV-2 VOC (B.1.351 and B.1.1.28)59. Another vaccine candidate based on adenovirus type 5–vectored SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan S protein was tested both using intranasal and oral administration, and both routes yielded only modest reduction in viral titers in hamsters57. The vaccine candidate was also tested in humans, but the program was subsequently abandoned57. A “prime and spike” vaccine (IM vaccination with the mRNA and an intranasal boost with the unadjuvanted Wuhan SARS-CoV-2 spike protein) showed efficacy comparable to dual dose mRNA vaccines against the ancestral SARS-CoV-2 (2020/USA-WA1) strain in mice: reduction (but not elimination) of viral titers in the lung and nostrils, and protection from weight loss in mouse models60. In a hamster transmission model, even a brief 4 h cohousing with an infected animal, allowed dual-dose vaccinated animals to pick up the infection. Although the vaccine was durable (challenge was performed 118 days after immunization), the efficacy was not tested against multiple strains of SARS-CoV-2, and protection against SARS-CoV required boosting with the intranasal spike derived from SARS-CoV60. From a vaccination perspective, having to continuously change the spike protein entails manufacturing of new proteins and, hence, is not scalable/translatable.
Pan-sarbecovirus vaccines designed based on either chimeric S proteins (mRNA based) or RBD-nanoparticles (protein-based) have been tested preclinically61,62. The S protein of sarbecoviruses comprises of three immunogenic domains: the N-terminal domain (NTD), the receptor binding domain (RBD), and the subunit 2 (S2). Synthetic chimeric S proteins constructed by varying the NTD/RBD/S2 from different sarbecovirus were formulated as nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccines encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles (mRNA-LNP)61. To further facilitate cross-reactivity, mixtures of four separate such chimeric spikes were included in the vaccine and were administered IM in a prime boost regimen. These chimeric vaccines showed protection against mouse adapted strains of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (Beta VOC) with robust protection from weight loss61. The use of K18-hACE2 mice and the lethality of the viruses in this mouse model precludes transmission studies to quantify the impact of the vaccines on transmission. The dense and precise nanoscale organization of antigens is a feature of viruses considered essential for stimulating a robust humoral response63. The Spycatcher-spytag-based system leads to the display of 60mers of antigens, and this system was used to construct nanoparticles randomly displaying the RBDs of eight different sarbecoviruses (mosaic-8 RBD nanoparticles)62. Similar to the chimeric mRNA-LNPs described above, dual dose IM immunization of K18-hACE2 mice showed robust protection against weight loss when challenged with either SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (Beta) but formal transmission studies were not undertaken. Of note, the mosaic nanoparticles were tested in NHPs using a three-dose immunization regimen, and the vaccinated animals showed a ~100-fold reduction (but not elimination) of infectious virus in nasal swabs when challenged with the SARS-CoV-2 Delta VOC62. By contrast, dual dose immunization with NanoSTING-SN led to the complete elimination of the infectious virus in the nasal tissue in hamsters when challenged with the SARS-CoV-2 Delta VOC. Although the data are unavailable, intranasal immunization with mosaic-8 RBD nanoparticles adjuvanted with NanoSTING or even synthetic STING agonists like CF501 will provide an orthogonal formulation for pan-sarbecovirus vaccines64.
Dual antigen vaccines targeting both the S and N proteins have been tested as either mRNA-LNP formulations or adenoviral vector vaccines23,24. The dual mRNA vaccine was administered IM in two doses and was tested against both SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron VOCs in hamsters23. Consistent with our studies, using the two antigens showed additive protection, but consistent with IM immunization, the mRNA vaccines could not eliminate the virus in the nostrils. The adenoviral vector vaccine engineered to express both the S and N proteins was administered IM and tested against challenge by SARS-CoV-2 (2020/USA-WA1) strain in K18-hACE2 mice24. Comparisons of the S-only and the dual antigen vaccine formulations showed that while the S vaccine was sufficient to provide immunity in the lung, protection of the nervous system and the brain was only observed with the dual antigen vaccine. These observations complement our results with NanoSTING-SN and further reinforce the importance of multi-protein vaccines.
The ability to elicit multifactorial immunity in the nasal cavity has several implications for the design of vaccines targeting respiratory viruses. First, since respiratory viruses like SARS-CoV-2 can access the brain through the olfactory mucosa in the nasal cavity, immunity in this compartment can prevent viral seeding to the brain. This, in turn, can prevent the entire spectrum of neurological complications ranging from the immediate loss of smell and taste to long-term complications like stroke65,66. Second, eliminating the virus in the nasal cavity of vaccinated recipients reduces the chance of viral evolution leading to breakthrough disease, especially in the context of waning immunity67. Allowing the virus to persist is a risky experiment in viral evolution with likely tragic consequences68. Eradicating the SARS-CoV-2 viral reservoir in humans provides the only reasonable path to moving past the pandemic and the perpetual cycle of repeated booster vaccinations. Third, as the recent human data with Omicron infection in vaccinated hosts illustrates the importance of mucosal immunity in preventing infection, and the identification of nasal antigen-specific IgA as a correlate of protection from infection helps the design of mucosal vaccines53,54,69.
History provides a powerful example of the importance of vaccination to prevent infections, not just disease, and sets a clinical precedent. Similar to the current COVID-19 commercial vaccines, the first inactivated polio vaccine in 1955 successfully prevented disease but not infection. The availability of the oral polio vaccine starting in 1960 paved the way for eliminating infection and eradicating polio. The availability of multi-antigen mucosal vaccines provides a pathway for humanity to move past SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks.
In summary, we have developed and validated a multi-component intranasal NanoSTING-SN subunit vaccine candidate that directly eliminates transmission of highly transmissible variants and protects against multiple sarbecoviruses.
Methods
Preparation of NanoSTING, NanoSTING-S, NanoSTING-N, and NanoSTING-SN
The liposomes contained DPPC, DPPG, Cholesterol (Chol), and DPPE-PEG2000 (Avanti Polar lipids) in a molar ratio of 10:1:1:1. To prepare the liposomes, we mixed the lipids in CH3OH and CHCl3. We used a vacuum rotary evaporator to evaporate them at 45 °C. We dried the resulting lipid thin film in a hood to remove residual organic solvent. Next, we added pre-warmed cGAMP (Medchem Express) solution (3 mg/mL in PBS buffer at pH 7.4) to hydrate the lipid film. We mixed the hydrated lipids for an additional 30 min at an elevated temperature of 65 °C and subjected them to freeze-thaw cycles. Using a Branson Sonicator (40 kHz), we next sonicated the mixture for 60 min and used Amicon Ultrafiltration units (MW cut off 10 kDa) to remove the free untrapped cGAMP. Finally, we used PBS buffer to wash the NanoSTING (liposomally encapsulated STINGa) three times. We measured the cGAMP concentration in the filtrates against a calibration curve of cGAMP at 260 nm using Take3 Micro-Volume absorbance analyzer of Cytation 5 (BioTek). We calculated the final concentration of cGAMP in NanoSTING and encapsulation efficiency by subtracting the concentration of free drug in the filtrate. To prepare NanoSTING adjuvanted subunit protein vaccine, we used a simple “mix and adsorb” approach. Briefly, (i) NanoSTING-S vaccine was prepared by gently mixing 10 µg of trimeric spike protein-B.1.351 (Acrobiosystems, #SPN-C52Hk) with 20 µg of NanoSTING. (ii) NanoSTING-N (Wuhan) (BEI, # NR-53797): Two different concentrations of the Nucleocapsid protein were taken: NanoSTING-N10 (10 µg of N protein) and NanoSTING-N20 (20 µg of N protein) were mixed separately with 20 µg of the NanoSTING. (iii) NanoSTING-N: 20 µg of nucleocapsid protein-B.1.17 (Acrobiosystems, #NUN-C52H8) was mixed with 20 µg of NanoSTING. (iv) NanoSTING-SN: 10 µg of trimeric spike protein-B.1.351 (Acrobiosystems, #SPN-C52Hk) and 20 µg of nucleocapsid protein-B.1.17 (Acrobiosystems, #NUN-C52H8) were mixed with 20 µg of NanoSTING. All the vaccines were left on ice for a minimum of 1 h with constant slow shaking on the rocker.
Stability studies for the formulated vaccines
We stored the NanoSTING, NanoSTING-S, NanoSTING-N, and NanoSTING-SN at 4 °C for 6–9 months to check their stability. We measured the average hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential of NanoSTING and all vaccine formulations using DLS and zeta sizer on Litesizer 500 (Anton Paar).
Cell lines
THP-1 dualTM cells (NF-κB-SEAP IRF-Luc Reporter Monocytes) [InvivoGen, SanDiego, CA, thpd-nfis] were cultured in a humidified incubator at 37 °C and 5% CO2 and grown in RPMI 1640, 2 mM L-glutamine, 25 mM HEPES, 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 100 μg/ml Normocin™, Pen-Strep (100 U/ml-100 μg/ml). THP-1 dual cells were grown in the presence of respective selection agents [100 mg/mL zeocin (InvivoGen, #ant-zn-1)] and 10 mg/mL blasticidin (InvivoGen, #ant-bl-1)] every other passage to maintain positive selection of reporters.
Cell stimulation experiments with luciferase reporter enzyme detection
We performed the THP-1 dual cell stimulation experiments using the manufacturer’s instructions (InvivoGen, CA, USA). First, we seeded the cells in 96 well plate at 1 × 105 cells/well in 180 μL growth media. We then incubated the cells with 5 µg of NanoSTING at 37 °C for 24 h. To detect IRF activity, we collected 10 μL of culture supernatant/well at 12 h and 24 h and transferred it to a white (opaque) 96 well plate. Next, we read the plate on Cytation 7 (Cytation 7, Bio-Tek Instruments, Inc.) after adding 50 μL QUANTI-Luc™ (InvivoGen) substrate solution per well, followed by immediate luminescence measurement, which was given as relative light units (RLU).
DNA binding assay
We performed the DNA binding studies as previously published52. To check the applicability of the assay for detecting DNA condensation, we used branched-chain PEI (Polyethylenimine) as a positive control (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO # 408727). DiYO-1 (AAT Biorequest #17579) and plasmid (pMB75.6)-DNA were mixed in equal volumes (in 20 mM HEPES, 100 mM NaCl, pH = 7.4) to achieve a final concentration of 400 nM DNA phosphate and 8 nM DiYO-1, respectively. The solution was left at room temperature (RT) for 5 h before use. Next, we added PEI at different concentrations (R = 0, 1, 2, 5 where R is the molar ratio of PEI Nitrogen to DNA phosphate) to DNA-DiYO-1 solution, mixed for 1 min, and left for 2 h to equilibrate. We measured the fluorescence intensity of the solution at excitation and emission wavelengths of 470 nm and 510 nm, respectively. We repeated the same procedure with SARS-CoV-2 N protein instead of PEI. To the DNA-DiYO-1 solution, we added the N protein at concentrations of 0.1 µM and 0.5 µM.
Mice and immunization
All studies using animal experiments were reviewed and approved by the University of Houston (UH) IACUC. We purchased the female 7–9-week-old BALB/c mice from Charles River Laboratories (Strain code: 028). The mice were maintained within a Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) facility housed on ventilated racks within micro-isolation caging systems. Notably, the mice were not bred within the facility premises and were co-housed during the study. The housing facility for mice was under a 12:12-h light: dark cycle at temperatures 20–22 °C, humidity 40–50%. Before immunization, we anesthetized the groups of mice (n = 4–6/group) by intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (80 µg/g of body weight) and xylazine (6 µg/g of body weight). Then, we immunized the animals intranasally with (i) NanoSTING-S vaccine (ii) NanoSTING-N10 and NanoSTING-N20 (iii) NanoSTING-N (iv) NanoSTING-SN. All vaccines were freshly prepared.
Body weight monitoring and sample collection
We monitored the body weight of the animals every 7 days until the end of the study after immunization. In addition, we collected the sera every week post-vaccination to detect the humoral immune response. We kept the blood at 25 °C for 10 min to facilitate clotting and centrifuged it for 5 min at 2000 × g. We collected the sera, stored it at −80 °C, and used it for ELISA. We harvested BALF, nasal wash, lung, and spleen at the end of the study, essentially as previously described70,71. We kept the sera and other biological fluids [with protease inhibitors (Roche, #11836153001)] at −80 °C for long-term storage. After dissociation, the splenocytes and lung cells were frozen in FBS + 10% DMSO and stored in the liquid nitrogen vapor phase until further use.
Mouse ELISA
We determined the anti-N and anti-S antibody titers in serum or other biological fluids (BALF and nasal wash) using ELISA. Briefly, we coated 0.5 μg/ml S protein (α variant: Cat# NR-55311, BEI Resources, VA, USA; β variant: Cat# SPN-C52Hk, Acrobiosystems, DE, USA; γ variant: Cat# SPN-C52Hg, Acrobiosystems, δ variant: Cat# 10878-CV, R&D Systems, MN, USA; ο variant: Cat# SPN-C52Hz, Acrobiosystems) and 1 μg/ml N protein (Sino Biological, PA, USA) onto ELISA plates (Corning, NY, USA) in PBS overnight at 4 °C or for 2 h at 37 °C. The plate was then blocked with PBS + 1% BSA (Fisher Scientific, PA, USA) + 0.1% Tween 20TM (Sigma-Aldrich, MD, USA) for 2 h at RT. After washing, we added the samples at different dilutions. We detected the captured antibodies using HRP-conjugated anti-mouse IgG (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, 1 in 6,000; PA, USA) and goat anti-mouse IgA biotin (Southern Biotech, 1: 5000; AL, USA). Streptavidin-HRP (Vector Laboratories, 1 in 2500, CA, USA) was used to detect the anti-IgA biotin antibodies. For BALF IgG ELISAs, antigens were coated onto plates at 0.5 μg/ml (S protein) and 2 μg/ml (N protein). We obtained the positive controls (anti-N and anti-S IgG) from Abeomics (CA, USA). We conducted three individual studies (NanoSTING-S, NanoSTING-N, and NanoSTING-SN), each with its own distinct control sets. We collected sera from the control animals upon completion of each study. The threshold for positivity was set at an optical density (450 nm) value of 0.05 or two times the negative control (PBS), whichever was higher. Endpoint titers were defined as the lowest dilution that was higher than the threshold for positivity.
Mouse RBD ELISA
We evaluated RBD-specific serum IgG and IgA in mice using indirect ELISAs. We coated the plates with 0.5 μg/ml spike RBD proteins (α variant: Cat# NR-55277, BEI Resources, Manassas, VA; β variant: Cat# NR-55278, BEI Resources). We incubated the plates overnight at 4 °C or 2 h at 37 °C. The unbound protein was washed off by rinsing the wells twice with PBS + 0.05% Tween-20 (PBST). The remaining active protein binding sites on the plates were blocked off by incubating the plates with PBS + 1% BSA + 0.1% Tween-20 for 1 h at RT. After two additional washes with PBST, we added the serum samples serially diluted in PBST + 0.5% BSA. Endpoint titers were evaluated by adding serum samples in two-fold dilutions in duplicates. Following 1 h incubation with diluted serum, we washed the plates four times with PBST and added HRP-conjugated anti-mouse IgG (Cat# 115-035-166, Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, 1: 5000; PA, USA) to detect RBD protein-specific IgG. To detect IgA in serum, we used Goat anti-mouse IgA biotin (Cat# 1040-05, Southern Biotech, 1: 5000; AL, USA). Streptavidin-HRP (Vector Laboratories, 1: 2500, CA, USA) was used to detect the anti-IgA biotin antibodies. We incubated the plates with detection antibodies for 1 h at room temperature. We washed the plates four times with PBST before adding 100 μl 1-Step™ TMB ELISA Substrate Solution (Cat# 34021, ThermoFisher, MA, USA). The plates were incubated with TMB for 30 min at room temperature, and we added 2 M H2SO4 to stop color development. Finally, we recorded optical density (OD) values using Cytation 7 (Biotek Instruments Inc).
Processing of spleen and lungs for ELISPOT and flow cytometry
To isolate lung cells, we perfused the lung vasculature with 5 ml of 1 mM EDTA in PBS without Ca2+, Mg2+ and injected it into the right cardiac ventricle. Each lung was cut into 100–300 mm2 pieces using a scalpel. We transferred the minced tissue to a tube containing 5 ml of digestion buffer containing collagenase D (2 mg/ml, Roche #11088858001) and DNase (0.125 mg/ml, Sigma #DN25) in 5 ml of RPMI for 1 h and 30 min at 37 °C in the water bath and vortexed after every 10 min. We disrupted the remaining intact tissue by passage (6–8 times) through a 21-gauge needle. Next, we added 500 µL of ice cold-stopping Buffer (1 × PBS, 0.1 M EDTA) to stop the reaction. We then removed tissue fragments and dead cells with a 40 µm disposable cell strainer (Falcon) and collected the cells after centrifugation at 400 × g. We then lysed the red blood cells (RBCs) by resuspending the cell pellet in 3 ml of ACK Lysing Buffer (Invitrogen) and incubated for 3 min at RT, followed by centrifugation at 400 × g. Then, we discarded the supernatants and resuspended the cell pellets in 5 ml of complete RPMI medium (Corning, NY, USA). Next, we collected the spleen in RPMI medium and homogenized them through a 40 µm cell strainer using the hard end of a syringe plunger. After that, we incubated splenocytes in 3 ml of ACK lysis buffer for 3 min at RT to remove RBCs, then passed through a 40 µm strainer to obtain a single-cell suspension. We counted the lung cells and splenocytes by the trypan blue exclusion method.
ELISPOT
IFNγ and IL4 ELISpot assay was performed using Mouse IFNγ ELISPOT basic kit (ALP) and Mouse IL4 ELISPOT basic kit following the manufacturer’s instructions (Mabtech, VA, USA). For cell activation control, we treated the cultures with 10 ng/ml phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) (Sigma, St. Louis, MI, USA) and 1 µg/ml of ionomycin (Sigma, St. Louis, MI, USA). We used the complete medium (RPMI supplemented with 10% FBS) as the negative control. We stimulated splenocytes and lung cells (3 × 105) in vitro with either N-protein peptide pool (Miltenyi Biotec; #130-126-699, Germany) or an S-protein peptide pool (Genscript, # RP30020, USA) or S-protein (B.1.351) mutation peptide pool (Miltenyi Biotec, # 130-127-958, Germany) at a concentration of 1.5 μg/ml/peptide at 37 °C for 16–18 h in pre-coated ELISpot plate (MSIPS4W10 from Millipore) coated with AN18 IFNγ (1 µg/ml, Mabtech #3321-3-250;) and 11B11 IL4 (1 µg/ml, Mabtech #3311-3-250) coating antibody. The next day, we washed off the cells and developed the plates using biotinylated R4-6A2 anti-IFN-γ (Mabtech #3321-6-250) and BVD6-24G2 anti-IL4 (Mabtech #3311-6-250) detection antibody, respectively. Then, we washed the wells and treated them for 1 h at RT with 1:30,000 diluted Extravidin-ALP conjugate (Sigma, St. Louis, MI, USA). After washing, we developed the spots by adding 70 µL/well of BCIP/NBT-plus substrate (Mabtech #3650-10) to the wells. We incubated the plate for 20–30 min for color development and washed it with water. We quantified the spots using Cytation 7 (Bio-Tek Instruments, Inc.). Each spot corresponds to an individual cytokine-secreting cell. We showed the values as the background-subtracted average of measured triplicates.
Cell surface staining, intracellular cytokine staining for flow cytometry
We stimulated the spleen and lung cells from immunized and control animals to detect nucleocapsid protein-specific CD8+ T cell responses with an N protein-peptide pool at a concentration of 1.5 μg/mL/peptide (Miltenyi Biotec; 130-126-699, Germany) at 37 °C for 16–18 h followed by the addition of Brefeldin A (5 μg/ml BD Biosciences #BD 555029) for the last 5 h of the incubation. We used 10 ng/ml PMA (Sigma, St. Louis, MI, USA) and 1 µg/ml ionomycin (Sigma, St. Louis, MI, USA) as the positive control. Stimulation without the peptides served as background control. We collected the cells and stained with Live/Dead Aqua (Thermo Fisher #L34965) in PBS, followed by Fc-receptor blockade with anti-CD16/CD32 (Thermo Fisher #14-0161-85), and then stained for 30 min on ice with the following antibodies in flow cytometry staining buffer (FACS): anti-CD4 AF589 (clone GK1.5; Biolegend #100446), anti-CD8b (clone YTS156.7.7; Biolegend #126609), anti-CD69 (clone H1.2F3; Biolegend #104537), anti-CD137 (clone 1AH2; BD; # 40364), anti-CD45 (clone 30-F11; BD; #564279). We washed the cells twice with the FACS buffer. We then fixed them with 100 μL IC (intracellular) fixation buffer (eBioscience) for 30 min at RT. We permeabilized the cells for 10 min with 200 μL permeabilization buffer (BD Cytofix solution kit). We performed the intracellular staining using the antibodies Alexa Fluor 488 interferon (IFN) gamma (clone XMG1.2; BD; #557735) and Granzyme B (clone GB11; Biolegend; #515407) overnight at 4 °C. Next, we washed the cells with FACS buffer and analyzed them on LSR-Fortessa flow cytometer (BD Bioscience) using FlowJo™ software version 10.8 (Tree Star Inc, Ashland, OR, USA). We calculated the results as the total number of cytokine-positive cells with background subtracted. We optimized the amount of the antibodies by titration. See Supplementary Fig. 11A for the gating strategy.
Viruses and biosafety
Viruses. We received the well-characterized challenge material (WCCM) from BEI Resources (Manassas, VA), which includes isolates of SARS-CoV-2 [NR-55612: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2 Isolate hCoV-19/USA/PHC658/2021 (Lineage B.1.617.2; Delta Variant), NR-58620: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2 Isolate hCoV-19/USA/COR-22-063113/2022 (Lineage BA.5; Omicron Variant)], NR-56462: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2 Isolate hCoV-19/USA/MD-HP20874/2021 (Lineage B.1.1.529; Omicron Variant) and SARS-CoV (NR-15418 SARS coronavirus Urbani v2163). We amplified the viruses in Vero E6 cells to create working stocks of the virus. The virus was adapted to mice by four serial passages in the lungs of mice and plaque purified at Utah State University (USU).
Biosafety and Ethics. The animal experiments at USU were conducted in accordance with an approved protocol by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of USU. The work was performed in the AAALAC-accredited LARC of the university in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (8th edition; 2011).
Viral challenge studies in animals
Animals: For SARS-CoV-2 animal studies completed at USU, 6–10-week-old male and female golden Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) were purchased from Charles River Laboratories (Strain code: 049) and housed in the ABSL-3 animal space within the LARC. All hamsters included in the study were carefully matched for age. The hamsters were not bred on-site. All hamsters were singly housed while at the facility.
Infection of animals. Hamsters were anesthetized with isoflurane and infected by intranasal instillation of 1 × 104.5 CCID50 (cell culture infectious dose 50%) of SARS-CoV-2 in a 100 µl volume.
Titration of tissue samples: Lung tissue and nasal tissue samples from hamsters were homogenized using a bead-mill homogenizer using minimum essential media. Homogenized tissue samples were serially diluted in a test medium, and the virus was quantified using an endpoint dilution assay on Vero E6 cells for SARS-CoV-2. A 50% cell culture infectious dose was determined using the Reed-Muench equation72.
Transmission studies
We immunized hamsters with a dual dose of the intranasal NanoSTING-SN vaccine or PBS, 5 weeks (day-21) and 2 weeks (Day 0) prior to infection with ∼3 × 104 CCID50 of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron VOC (BA.5) [day 14]. One day after the viral challenge, we co-housed the index hamsters in pairs with contact hamsters for 4 days in clean cages. We euthanized the index and contact hamsters on day 4 and day 5 of cohousing. Viral titers in the lungs and nasal tissue of the index and contact hamsters were used as primary endpoints. We performed another study with another strain of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron VOC (B.1.1.529). We immunized hamsters with a single dose of the intranasal NanoSTING-SN vaccine or PBS, 3 weeks prior to infection with ∼3 × 104 CCID50 of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron VOC (B.1.1.529). One day after the viral challenge, we co-housed the index hamsters in pairs with contact hamsters for 4 days in clean cages. We euthanized the contact and index hamsters on day 4 of cohousing. Viral titers in the nasal tissue of the index and contact hamsters were used as primary endpoints.
Histopathology
Lungs of the Syrian golden hamsters were fixed in 10% neural buffered formalin overnight and then processed for paraffin embedding. The 4-μm sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for histopathological examinations. We used integrated scoring rubric for evaluating the pathology score73. The scoring method in the reference was modified from a 0–3 to a 0–4 score with 1 = 1–25%, 2 = 26–50%; 3 = 51–75; 4 = 76–100%, so with the three criteria mentioned in the reference will yield a score for an animal ranging from 0–12. This scoring also takes into account the degeneration/necrosis of the bronchial epithelium/alveolar epithelium. A board-certified pathologist evaluated the sections.
Quantitative modeling
To quantify the kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 infection in the upper respiratory tract (URT) upon N, S, and N + S immunization, we modified a previously described innate immune model46. We added appropriate parameters to account for de-novo blocking and T-cell killing, as shown in Fig. 2A. The mean population parameter values and initial values were from prior publication46. We solved the system of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) for different S and N response efficiencies using the ODE45 function in MATLAB 2018b. A sample MATLAB code for solving the system of equations has been provided in Sup Note 1. There are some limitations to our model. This model does not consider the effect of interferons that are known to suppress viral production rate. Under these conditions, the rate constant π, for viral production should reduce as the infection progresses and this factor is especially important when the infection persists >7 days46. Second, our model in Supplementary Fig. 5C predicts that the number of viral particles is between 1 and 100 which is below the experimental detection limit and hence cannot be confirmed experimentally.
Immunogenicity studies in rhesus macaques (RM’s) and their monitoring
Experiments with rhesus macaques (M. mulatta) were reviewed and approved by UH IACUC. Three healthy rhesus macaques (RM’s) of Indian origin, between 4 and 11 years of age and 4–12 kg in weight) were used. The RM’s were acquired from Washington University School of Medicine, Division of Comparative Medicine C/O Dr. Chad B Faulkner; 660S. Euclid Ave., Box 8061; St. Louis, MO 63110 and Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX. We used three RM’s for the study. Two of them were males, and one was female. All the animals were single-housed. We administered two doses of the intranasal NanoSTING-SN vaccine (n = 3/group), 28 days apart to RM’s The animals were monitored until day 44 for changes in body weight, attitude, appetite, body temperature (via a rectal thermometer). For evaluating humoral immune responses, we collected the sera and nasal washes on day 0, 7, 14, 28, and 44. We kept the blood at 25 °C for 10 min to facilitate clotting and centrifuged it for 5 min at 2000 × g. We collected the sera, stored it at −80 °C, and used it for ELISA. We kept the sera and nasal wash fluid [with protease inhibitors (Roche, #11836153001] at −80 °C for long-term storage.
NHP ELISA
For NHP serum IgG and IgA ELISA, we coated the plate overnight with 0.5 μg/ml S protein and 1 μg/ml N protein (Acrobiosystems, DE, USA). The MERS spike protein (BEI resources, VA, USA) was also coated at 0.5 μg/ml. Subsequent blocking and wash steps were performed similarly to the mouse IgG and IgA ELISAs. Serum and nasal wash samples from NHPs were added at different dilutions and incubated for 1 h at room temperature. Mouse anti-monkey IgG HRP (Southern Biotech, 1: 5000; AL, USA) was used to detect IgG in serum and nasal wash samples. IgA was detected using goat anti-monkey IgA HRP from Exalpha (MA, UK) at 1:5000 dilution. Pre-immunization sera was used as control for ELISA. The threshold for positivity was set at an optical density (450 nm) value of 0.05 or two times the negative control (PBS), whichever was higher. Endpoint titers were defined as the lowest dilution that was higher than the threshold for positivity.
NHP RBD ELISA
We evaluated RBD-specific serum IgG and IgA in NHPs using indirect ELISAs. We coated the plates with 0.5 μg/ml spike RBD proteins (BA.1 variant: Cat# NR- SPD-C522j, ACROBiosystems, DE, USA); (XBB1.5 variant: Cat# SPD-C5242, ACROBiosystems, DE, USA). We incubated the plates overnight at 4 °C or 2 h at 37 °C. The unbound protein was washed off by rinsing the wells twice with PBS + 0.05% Tween-20 (PBST). The remaining active protein binding sites on the plates were blocked off by incubating the plates with PBS + 1% BSA + 0.1% Tween-20 for 1 h at room temperature. After two additional washes with PBST, we added the serum samples serially diluted in PBST + 0.5% BSA. Endpoint titers were evaluated by adding serum samples in two-fold dilutions in duplicates. Following 1 h of incubation at RT with diluted serum, we washed the plates four times with PBST and added HRP-conjugated anti-human IgG (Cat# 6200-05, Southern Biotech, 1: 80000); AL, USA to detect RBD protein-specific IgG. For the detection of IgA in serum, we used mouse anti-monkey IgA biotin (Cat# MCA2553B, BioRad, 1: 10000; CA, USA). We incubated the plates with detection antibodies for 1 h at room temperature. We washed the plates four times with PBST and added Streptavidin-HRP (Vector Laboratories, 1: 5000, CA, USA) to detect the anti-IgA biotin antibodies. Finally, we washed the plates four times with PBST before adding 100 μl 1-Step™ TMB ELISA Substrate Solution (Cat# 34021, ThermoFisher, MA, USA). The plates were incubated with TMB for 30 min at RT, and we added 2 M H2SO4 to stop color development. We recorded optical density (OD) values using Cytation 7 (Biotek Instruments Inc).
Statistics and reproducibility
Statistical significance was assigned when P values were <0.05 using GraphPad Prism (v6.07). Tests, number of animals (n), mean values, statistical comparison groups, and the statistical test used are indicated in the figure legends. No statistical methods were used to predetermine sample sizes for the in-vitro and animal studies. Sample size was determined based on similar studies in this field. Animals were randomly divided into experimental groups. When applicable, technical repeats are specified for each experiment in the figure legends wherever applicable. No data was excluded from the analyses. Animal studies were performed in biological triplicates or more, as indicated in the figure legends. Reproducibility between animals in NanoSTING, NanoSTING-N, and NanoSTING-SN and PBS groups is shown in the results and figure legends. The researchers were not blinded to allocation during experiments and outcome assessment. Data collection and analysis were not performed blind to the conditions of the experiments. The pathologists performing the histopathological analysis were blinded to treatment. The adjuvant was manufactured at UH, and the adjuvant/protein were shipped to USU. USU performed the vaccine formulation for the challenge experiments and immunized and challenged the animals. Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.
Reporting summary
Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.
Data availability
All data are included in the source data file or available from the authors, as are unique reagents used in this article. The raw numbers for charts and graphs are available in the Source Data file whenever possible. All material and experimental data requests should be directed to the corresponding author, Navin Varadarajan. Source data are provided with this paper.
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Acknowledgements
This publication was supported by the NIH (R01GM143243), AuraVax Therapeutics, and Owens Foundation. X.L. acknowledges partial funding support from the National Cancer Institute (NIH R15CA182769, P20CA221731, P20CA221696) and CPRIT (RP150656). The following reagents were produced under HHN272201400008C and obtained through BEI Resources, NIAID, NIH: Spike Glycoprotein (Stabilized) from SARS-Related Coronavirus 2, Wuhan-Hu-1, Recombinant from Baculovirus, NR-52308; and Spike Glycoprotein Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) from SARS Related Coronavirus 2 (multiple variants), NR-55612: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2 Isolate hCoV-19/USA/PHC658/2021 (Lineage B.1.617.2; Delta Variant): This reagent was obtained through BEI Resources, NIAID, NIH: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2, Isolate hCoV-19/USA/PHC658/2021 (Lineage B.1.617.2; Delta Variant) (WCCM), NR-55612, contributed by Dr. Richard Webby and Dr. Anami Patel. NR-58620: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2 Isolate hCoV-19/USA/COR-22-063113/2022 Lineage BA.5; Omicron Variant: This reagent was obtained through BEI Resources, NIAID, NIH: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2, Isolate hCoV-19/USA/COR-22-063113/2022 (Lineage BA.5; Omicron Variant) in VeroTMPRSS2-ACE2 Cells (WCCM), NR-58620, contributed by Dr. Richard J. Webby. NR-56462: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2 Isolate hCoV-19/USA/MD-HP20874/2021 (Lineage B.1.1.529; Omicron Variant) was obtained through BEI Resources, NIAID, NIH: SARS-Related Coronavirus 2, Isolate hCoV-19/USA/MDHP20874/2021 (Lineage B.1.1.529; Omicron Variant) (WCCM), NR-56462, contributed by Andrew S. Pekosz. NR-15418: SARS coronavirus Urbani v2163: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), strain Urbani (200300592), was obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, Atlanta, GA) and routinely passaged in Vero-76 cells. This virus was adapted through 25 serial passages in the lungs of mice and plaque-purified for use in mouse infections74. Schematics were made using Adobe Illustrator, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Biorender via full license.
Author information
Author notes
These authors contributed equally: Ankita Leekha, Arash Saeedi.
Authors and Affiliations
William A. Brookshire Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Ankita Leekha, Arash Saeedi, K M Samiur Rahman Sefat, Monish Kumar, Melisa Martinez-Paniagua, Adrian Damian, Rohan Kulkarni, Kate Reichel, Ali Rezvan & Navin Varadarajan
Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Shalaleh Masoumi & Xinli Liu
AuraVax Therapeutics, Houston, TX, USA
Laurence J. N. Cooper & Manu Sebastian
Animal Care Operations, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Courtney M. Sands
College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Vallabh E. Das & Nimesh B. Patel
Institute of Antiviral Research, Utah State University, UT, Logan, USA
Brett Hurst
Contributions
N.V. conceived the study. N.V., A.L., A.S., L.J.N.C., M.S., and B.H. designed the study. A.L., A.S., K.M.S.R.S., M.K., M.M.P., A.D., R.K., K.R., A.R., S.M., B.H., C.M.S., V.E.D., M.S., N.B.P., and X.L. performed experiments. A.L., A.S., K.M.S.R.S., M.K., B.H., X.L., and N.V. analyzed the data. M.K. performed modeling. N.V., A.L. drafted the manuscript, and all authors contributed to the review and editing of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Correspondence to Navin Varadarajan.
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
UH has filed a provisional patent based on the findings of this study. N.V. and L.J.N.C. are co-founders of AuraVax Therapeutics and CellChorus. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
The mouse, hamster, and NHP studies were performed under the study protocol (PROTO2020000019, PROTO202100006, PROTO202100049, PROTO202200025), as approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee in University of Houston. The animal experiments at USU were conducted in accordance with an approved protocol by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Utah State University. The work was performed in the AAALAC-accredited LARC of the university in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (8th edition; 2011).
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Nature Communications thanks Juliane Schröter, Yi-Nan Zhang, and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available.
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Leekha, A., Saeedi, A., Sefat, K.M.S.R. et al. Multi-antigen intranasal vaccine protects against challenge with sarbecoviruses and prevents transmission in hamsters. Nat Commun 15, 6193 (2024).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-50133-2Download citation
Received01 August 2023
Accepted01 July 2024
Published23 July 2024
DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-50133-2
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Subjects
Mucosal immunology
Protein vaccines
SARS-CoV-2
Viral infection
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